| 1 | Nanomaterial dispersion | Ultrasonic vibration creates cavitation in a liquid; collapsing bubbles generate localized shear and microstreaming. | Carbon nanotubes, graphene, and other fine powders dispersed in a liquid medium. | Helps break up agglomerates and improve distribution through the liquid. | Powder wetting, viscosity, concentration, and heat buildup can affect dispersion results. |
| 2 | Paints and coatings | Cavitation and acoustic streaming apply mechanical forces to pigment agglomerates. | Pigments and functional fillers in coating formulations. | Supports deagglomeration and more uniform pigment distribution. | Formulation compatibility and temperature control should be considered. |
| 3 | Inks and printing materials | High-frequency probe motion transfers energy into the liquid and promotes particle breakup. | Pigment dispersions and other particulate ink components. | Can assist with dispersion uniformity in suitable formulations. | Excessive processing may heat the batch or affect sensitive formulation components. |
| 4 | Pharmaceutical suspensions | Acoustic cavitation and fluid motion help disperse solid particles in a liquid. | Suspensions and development-scale liquid formulations. | Can reduce visible particle clustering and support a more even suspension. | Validated process conditions and product-specific safety requirements are essential. |
| 5 | Cosmetics and personal care | Ultrasonic energy promotes mixing and particle deagglomeration in liquid formulations. | Lotions, creams, pigment-containing products, and liquid dispersions. | Supports uniform distribution of selected ingredients. | Formulation temperature and sensitivity of ingredients should be monitored. |
| 6 | Food and beverage processing | Cavitation-induced shear and streaming act on dispersed components in a liquid. | Selected emulsions, suspensions, and ingredient dispersions. | May assist mixing or dispersion in processes designed for ultrasonic treatment. | Equipment design, sanitation, and food-process regulations must be addressed. |
| 7 | Battery materials | Ultrasonic cavitation and shear help distribute fine particles within a liquid slurry. | Electrode slurries containing active materials, conductive additives, and binders. | Can help break up agglomerates and improve slurry homogeneity. | Slurry viscosity, solids loading, and material sensitivity influence process selection. |
| 8 | Ceramics and advanced materials | Acoustic forces act on particles suspended in a liquid, assisting deagglomeration. | Ceramic powders and other fine inorganic particles in liquid suspensions. | Helps produce a more uniform particle distribution before downstream processing. | Abrasive solids can cause probe wear; equipment materials and maintenance matter. |
| 9 | Wastewater and environmental treatment | Cavitation produces localized physical effects in the liquid and can enhance contact between process components. | Selected liquid treatment processes and laboratory or pilot-scale studies. | Can support mixing or treatment steps when integrated into a suitable process. | Effectiveness depends on water composition, reactor design, and treatment objectives. |
| 10 | Biotechnology and laboratory research | Probe-generated ultrasonic energy creates cavitation and intense local fluid motion. | Sample preparation, cell disruption, and small-volume research procedures. | Provides a controllable means of applying mechanical energy to liquid samples. | Heat-sensitive samples may require cooling and carefully controlled treatment. |